Android Interview Questions
1) What is Android?
Android is an open-source, linux-based operating system that is used in mobiles, tablets, televisions etc.
2) Who is the founder of Android?
Andy Rubin.
3) Explain the Android application Architecture.
Following is a list of components of Android application architecture:
- Services: Used to perform background functionalities.
- Intent: Used to perform the inter connection between activities and the data passing mechanism.
- Resource Externalization: strings and graphics.
- Notification: light, sound, icon, notification, dialog box and toast.
- Content Providers: It will share the data between applications.
4) What are the code names of android?
- Aestro
- Blender
- Cupcake
- Donut
- Eclair
- Froyo
- Gingerbread
- Honycomb
- Ice Cream Sandwitch
- Jelly Bean
- Kitkat
- Lollipop
- Marshmallow
5) What are the advantages of android?
Open-source: It means no licence, distribution and development fee.
Platform-independent: It supports windows, mac and linux platforms.
Supports various technologies: It supports camera, bluetooth, wifi, speech, EDGE etc. technologies.
Highly optimized Virtual Machine: Android uses highly optimized virtual machine for mobile devices, called DVM (Dalvik Virtual Machine).
6) Does android support other language than java?
Yes, android app can be developed in C/C++ also using android NDK (Native Development Kit). It makes the performance faster. It should be used with android SDK.
History of Android
The history and versions of android are interesting to know. The code names of android ranges from A to J currently, such as Aestro, Blender, Cupcake, Donut, Eclair, Froyo, Gingerbread, Honeycomb, Ice Cream Sandwitch, Jelly Bean, KitKat and Lollipop. Let's understand the android history in a sequence.
1) Initially, Andy Rubin founded Android Incorporation in Palo Alto, California, United States in October, 2003.
2) In 17th August 2005, Google acquired android Incorporation. Since then, it is in the subsidiary of Google Incorporation.
3) The key employees of Android Incorporation are Andy Rubin, Rich Miner, Chris White and Nick Sears.
4) Originally intended for camera but shifted to smart phones later because of low market for camera only.
5) Android is the nick name of Andy Rubin given by coworkers because of his love to robots.
6) In 2007, Google announces the development of android OS.
7) In 2008, HTC launched the first android mobile.
Ibadism
Ibadism, a distinct sect of Islam that is neither Sunni nor Shi‘i, exists mainly in Oman, East Africa, the Mzab valley of Algeria, the Nafus mountains of Libya, and the island of Jerba in Tunisia. The sect developed out of the seventh-century Islamic sect known as the Khawarij, and shares with that group the desire to found a righteous Muslim society and the belief that true Muslims are only to be found in their own sect. Ibadis refer to themselves as “the Muslims” or “the people of straightness” (ahl al-istiqama). Nonetheless, Ibadis see themselves as quite different from Khawarij.
Whereas the Khawarij had labeled all Muslims who committed a grave sin without repentance mushrikun--i.e., unbelievers whose guilt is tantamount to idolatry and merits the capital punishment deserved by all apostates of the faith--Ibadis see such people as kuffar ni‘ma--monotheists who are ungrateful for the blessings God has bestown upon them. Ibadis distinguish between kufr ni‘ma and kufr shirk, which is the unbelief of idolatry. The Khawarij had not made such a distinction, and neither do the Sunni Muslims, who likewise equate kufr with unbelief but, unlike the Khawarij, maintain that a sinning Muslim is still a believer. The word kufr, which is typically translated into English as “unbelief,” literally means “ingratitude.” The characteristic position of human beings, according to the Qur’an, is not their ignorance of the existence of God, but their failure to be grateful for His kindness and blessings, which should prompt people to turn to Him in worship and give generous charity to the poor, orphans and widows. The Qur’an contrasts the believers, who are grateful (shakirun), with the unbelievers, who are ungrateful (kafirun).
Whereas the Khawarij had labeled all Muslims who committed a grave sin without repentance mushrikun--i.e., unbelievers whose guilt is tantamount to idolatry and merits the capital punishment deserved by all apostates of the faith--Ibadis see such people as kuffar ni‘ma--monotheists who are ungrateful for the blessings God has bestown upon them. Ibadis distinguish between kufr ni‘ma and kufr shirk, which is the unbelief of idolatry. The Khawarij had not made such a distinction, and neither do the Sunni Muslims, who likewise equate kufr with unbelief but, unlike the Khawarij, maintain that a sinning Muslim is still a believer. The word kufr, which is typically translated into English as “unbelief,” literally means “ingratitude.” The characteristic position of human beings, according to the Qur’an, is not their ignorance of the existence of God, but their failure to be grateful for His kindness and blessings, which should prompt people to turn to Him in worship and give generous charity to the poor, orphans and widows. The Qur’an contrasts the believers, who are grateful (shakirun), with the unbelievers, who are ungrateful (kafirun).
The Ibadi attitude toward kuffar ni‘ma, whether they be sinning Ibadis or non-Ibadi Muslims, was that one should practice “dissociation” (bara’a) toward them. This “dissociation,” however, is usually an internal attitude of withholding “friendship” (wilaya), rather than outright hostility. Nonetheless, non-Ibadis who call themselves Muslims and pray facing the direction of the Ka‘ba are ahl al-qibla, not idolaters. They may be kuffar, but not in the sense of idolatry, only in the sense of kufr ni‘ma outlined above. The practice of dissociation (bara’a) does not imply enmity. Nur al-Din al-Salimi (1869-1914) clarified this when asked about the difference between dissociation from an unbeliever (bara’at al-mushrik) and dissociation from a corrupt monotheist (bara’at al-muwahhid al-fasiq). Salimi replied:
Although the mushrik is farther [from the truth] than the corrupt monotheist, both are cursed. Nonetheless, the Law allows certain things with the corrupt monotheist that it does not allow with the polytheist, such as intermarriage, eating their slaughtered animals, inheritance, giving the greeting of peace, saying “God bless you” if he sneezes, praying behind him, praying over him if he dies, accepting his testimony, and interacting with him in all worldly matters just as one would interact with Muslims with whom one has wilaya.[1]
It is interesting to note that British observers of Omani rule in East Africa commented that Ibadis are the least fanatic and sectarian of all Muslims, and openly associate with people of all faiths and pray together with Sunni Muslims. Hostile action is reserved for one type of person: the unjust ruler who refuses to mend his ways or relinquish his power.
Although the mushrik is farther [from the truth] than the corrupt monotheist, both are cursed. Nonetheless, the Law allows certain things with the corrupt monotheist that it does not allow with the polytheist, such as intermarriage, eating their slaughtered animals, inheritance, giving the greeting of peace, saying “God bless you” if he sneezes, praying behind him, praying over him if he dies, accepting his testimony, and interacting with him in all worldly matters just as one would interact with Muslims with whom one has wilaya.[1]
It is interesting to note that British observers of Omani rule in East Africa commented that Ibadis are the least fanatic and sectarian of all Muslims, and openly associate with people of all faiths and pray together with Sunni Muslims. Hostile action is reserved for one type of person: the unjust ruler who refuses to mend his ways or relinquish his power.
In theology, the Ibadis adopt the positions of the Mu‘tazila on the questions of tawhid: rejecting a literal interpretation of all anthropomorphic descriptions of God; denying the possibility of seeing God in this life or the afterlife; rejecting the existence of eternal attributes in God that are distinct from His essence; and upholding the doctrine of the creation of the Qur’an. They also part ways with Sunni Muslims in their condemnation of ‘Uthman, ‘Ali and Mu‘awiya and their rejection of the Prophet’s intercession on behalf of grave sinners and of all possibility of rescue from hellfire: punishment in hellfire is eternal, as the Qur’an says. They do not uphold the notion of an intermediate position between faith and kufr, but, as we have already indicated, they distinguish between different types of kufr, drawing a sharp distinction between kufr ni‘ma and kufr shirk. However, on the question of free-will vs. predestination the Ibadi position is virtually identical to that of al-Ash‘ari: God is the creator of all human acts, which are termed “acquisitions.”
There are minor differences between the prayer observances of Ibadis and Sunnis. Ibadis, like the Shi‘a and the Malikis, pray with their arms down at their sides. They do not say Amin after the Fatiha, and they do not say the qunut invocation in the fajr prayer. They believe that Friday prayer should be held only in major cities in which justice prevails--meaning that for centuries Ibadis did not observe congregational prayer because of the lack of a just Imam--and they reject the blessing of tyrannical rulers in the khutba.
There are minor differences between the prayer observances of Ibadis and Sunnis. Ibadis, like the Shi‘a and the Malikis, pray with their arms down at their sides. They do not say Amin after the Fatiha, and they do not say the qunut invocation in the fajr prayer. They believe that Friday prayer should be held only in major cities in which justice prevails--meaning that for centuries Ibadis did not observe congregational prayer because of the lack of a just Imam--and they reject the blessing of tyrannical rulers in the khutba.
The righteous Imamate is a topic of great importance in Ibadi legal literature. The Imam should be chosen for his knowledge and piety, without any regard to race or lineage. He should be chosen by the elders of the community, who are also obligated to depose him if he acts unjustly. The last “true Imam” to unite the entire country of Oman under his power was Ahmad ibn Sa‘id (ruled 1754-1783 CE), founder of the BuSa‘idi dynasty that remains in power to this day. His descendants took the title not of Imam, with its connotations of religious leadership, but Sayyid, an honorific title held by any member of the royal family. Later, they used the title Sultan, implying purely coercive power. Thus they relinquished all pretense of spiritual authority, although they patronized Muslim scholars and promoted Islamic scholarship. Ibadi scholars were often actively engaged in trying to actualize the true Islamic state; they poured forth their longings in poetry, even as they elaborated the foundations of piety in lengthy works of jurisprudence. The Ibadi scholars of Oman--and the Mzab valley of Algeria, although the linkage of Ibadism with Omani identity has necessarily made Oman the focus of Ibadi political aspirations--have not merely taught and studied: they have agitated, led revolts, elected Imams, and been the true leaders of Omani society, as both moral exemplars and arbiters of power. Shaykh Sa‘id ibn Khalfan al-Khalili (1811-1870), a mystic, poet and scholar of Arabic grammar and rhetoric who is credited with inaugurating Oman’s literary revival, is even more famous for his role in leading a rebellion against Sultan Turki and establishing the Imamate of ‘Azzan ibn Qays (1868-1871), which was overthrown only through British intervention. Nur al-Din al-Salimi led a new Imamate movement in 1913, and forced his student, Salim ibn Rashid al-Kharusi, to accept the role of Imam on pain of death. When Salim was assassinated in 1920, another of Salimi’s students, Muhammad ibn ‘Abdallah al-Khalili, grandson of the great Sa‘id ibn Khalfan al-Khalili, who was appointed to succeed him. For seven years the British defended the Sultan in Muscat and eventually in 1920 arranged the so-called Treaty of Seeb, the formal agreement which ambiguously divided the authority of the “Sultan of Muscat and Oman” from that of the “Imam of the Muslims,” who ruled in the interior. This division remained in force until Sultan Sa‘id ibn Taymur secured the allegiance of the tribes of the interior in the 1950's.
Omanis had settled in East Africa for centuries, and periodically parts of East Africa came under direct rule from Oman, although more often individual Omani families ruled East African city-states, most famously the Mazru‘is of Mombasa. But Sayyid Sa‘id ibn Sultan (ruled 1806-1856) was able to consolidate central Omani rule over the Swahili coast, and in 1832 he moved his capital to Zanzibar. On the Swahili coast Ibadis found themselves a minority, ruling over a largely Shafi‘i Muslim population. In the nineteenth century Zanzibar became an important center of Islamic scholarship, attracting scholars from Oman as well as from other parts of East Africa, such as Somalia, Lamu, Mombasa and the Comoro Islands. In Zanzibar Ibadis were exposed to contemporary Islamic currents in a way that had not been possible in Oman. Sayyid Barghash ibn Sa‘id, who ruled Zanzibar from 1870 to 1888, was well-read and deeply interested in world affairs, and established a printing press to promote Ibadi scholarship. Ibadis in Zanzibar continued to take great interest in the political affairs of Oman, and many ardently supported the movement that established the Imamate of ‘Azzan ibn Qays (1868-1871). In the period following this Imamate, many Omanis fled unstable economic and political conditions at home and settled in Zanzibar. Among them was Nasir al-Rawwahi, a great poet, scholar, mystic and judge known in Oman as Abu Muslim al-Bahlani (1860-1920), who emigrated to Zanzibar as a young man, along with his father, who had served under Imam ‘Azzan ibn Qays as judge in Nizwa. Rawwahi was an ardent supporter of the Ibadi ideal; his scholarly writings reflect fully the tradition of Ibadi learning, and his extensive commentary on Nur al-Din al-Salimi’s poem on jurisprudence is a tribute to the range of his learning and his consistency with Ibadi tradition. His poems are of a deeply mystical character, and Rawwahi has a reputation for being a “divine” (rabbani) poet in the full sense of the word--a man so enraptured with the divine beauty, so privileged with the vision of the unseen, that his poetry belongs to a realm beyond our own. Some of his poems, dhikr meditations on the Divine Names, were intended to be used for devotional purposes. Like the other great Ibadi scholars, he disdained either to write love poetry or panegyric. Yet this otherworldly mystic was also a man of this-worldly politics. As one researcher commented, “His entire diwan indicates that the poet was fighting the opponents of Ibadism in Zanzibar.”[2] He greatly admired the lives of the leaders of Ibadism, to the point where he said, “God will accept no religion other than theirs.”[3] In his youth he was a close friend of Ahmad ibn Sa‘id al-Khalili, son of the great Shaykh Sa‘id ibn Khalfan al-Khalili, and the latter’s influence on Nasir al-Rawwahi is palpable. In the movement to establish the Imamate of Salim ibn Rashid al-Kharusi, Rawwahi compared his role to that of Hassan ibn Thabit, the personal poet of the Prophet Muhammad.
But moving to Zanzibar enabled him to expand his cultural horizons a great deal. He was chief judge and advisor of Sultans Hamad ibn Thuwayni (1893-1896) and Hamud ibn Muhammad (ruled 1896-1902), even traveling with the latter in coastal East Africa in late 1898, penning his observations in a booklet that has been published by the Ministry of National Heritage and Culture in Oman. His attitude toward modern innovations may be compared with that of Nur al-Din al-Salimi, who had written that it is impermissible to learn the languages of the Europeans or adopt any of their manners or send one’s children to their schools.[4] In contrast, Rawwahi openly admired the improvements brought to the region by British administration. He observed that the town of Lamu, a traditional center of Muslim culture and scholarship on an island off the coast of Kenya, had narrow streets and old, crooked buildings, and its inhabitants manifested diseases of body and soul. The British, he says, had left the city as it was, restricting themselves to road repair and building hospitals. He expressed his hope that the English would not leave Lamu in this condition, but would plant the “civilization” (tamaddun) in it that they had in their own capitals. He praised the justice of British administration in Zanzibar.
It is a sign of Rawwahi’s cosmopolitanism and his difference from earlier Ibadi scholars that he was influenced by the ideas of the Egyptian reformer Muhammad ‘Abduh, and established the first newspaper in Oman or Zanzibar, called Al-Najah, to propagate ‘Abduh’s ideas. He corresponded with non-Ibadi Muslim leaders, and sent a poem to Riyad Pasha thanking him for his efforts to reconcile Muslims and Copts in Egypt. Like Sa‘id ibn Khalfan al-Khalili, Rawwahi is a fascinating blend of contradictions: an ardent supporter of a pure Ibadi Imamate, a friend and counselor of sultans, an admirer of British rule; affirming the traditional Ibadi doctrine that non-Ibadi Muslims are kuffar ni‘ma, but expressing his admiration for non-Ibadi Muslims and advocating a unity that encompasses not only Muslims, but non-Muslims as well; a judge and journalist advocating modern “civilization,” and a mystic who longs for the righteous Ibadi Imamate.
It is a sign of Rawwahi’s cosmopolitanism and his difference from earlier Ibadi scholars that he was influenced by the ideas of the Egyptian reformer Muhammad ‘Abduh, and established the first newspaper in Oman or Zanzibar, called Al-Najah, to propagate ‘Abduh’s ideas. He corresponded with non-Ibadi Muslim leaders, and sent a poem to Riyad Pasha thanking him for his efforts to reconcile Muslims and Copts in Egypt. Like Sa‘id ibn Khalfan al-Khalili, Rawwahi is a fascinating blend of contradictions: an ardent supporter of a pure Ibadi Imamate, a friend and counselor of sultans, an admirer of British rule; affirming the traditional Ibadi doctrine that non-Ibadi Muslims are kuffar ni‘ma, but expressing his admiration for non-Ibadi Muslims and advocating a unity that encompasses not only Muslims, but non-Muslims as well; a judge and journalist advocating modern “civilization,” and a mystic who longs for the righteous Ibadi Imamate.
Sultan Sa‘id ibn Taymur, who ruled Oman from 1932-1970, was a staunch conservative whose resistance to Westernization was so strong that Omanis were not allowed to own automobiles, and the country had no paved roads until 1968. But he sent his son, the present sultan, Qaboos, to London to study at the Sandhurst Military Academy. This Qaboos deposed his father in 1970 and set about modernizing Oman at a rapid rate. So far Oman has managed to avoid unthinking Westernization and its corollary, Islamic reactionism. Islam remains an important part of life, but in a thoroughly natural and non-politicized way. The government supports the publication and dissemination of Ibadi scholarship, but the rhetoric of Ibadism is noticeably absent from its public pronouncements. Scholars like Nur al-Din Salimi and Sa‘id al-Khalili are sources of national pride, but their struggles against the BuSa‘idi sultanate are downplayed. It is noteworthy that Nur al-Din al-Salimi’s son, Muhammad, wrote a poem in praise of Sultan Qaboos. Abu Nabhan Ja‘id ibn Khamis (1734/5-1822), an important Ibadi scholar of the early BuSa‘idi period, confidently wrote that regardless of how kind, pious and good non-Ibadi Muslims may be, they will inevitably go to hell in the afterlife.[5] But the present Grand Mufti of Oman, Shaykh Ahmad ibn Hamad al-Khalili, believes that the differences between Sunni and Ibadi Muslims are subsidiary issues that are of little eternal consequence and in no way impede Muslim unity.[6] One can say that today Ibadism is hardly sectarian, and the dream of establishing a modern Imamate has given way to aspirations more typical of modern life.
copy post
by Rwom Bangla
Life of mosquito
Knowing the different stages of the mosquito's life will help you prevent mosquitoes around your home and also help you choose the right pesticides for your needs, if you decide to use them. All mosquito species go through four distinct stages during their life cycle:Egg - hatches when exposed to water. Larva - (plural: larvae) "wriggler" lives in water; molts several times; most species surface to breathe air. Pupa - (plural: pupae) "tumbler" does not feed; stage just before emerging as adult.Adult - flies short time after emerging and after its body parts have hardened.The first three stages occur in water, but the adult is an active flying insect. Only the female mosquito bites and feeds on the blood of humans or other animals.After she obtains a blood meal, the female mosquito lays the eggs directly on or near water, soil and at the base of some plants in places that may fill with water. The eggs can survive dry conditions for a few months.The eggs hatch in water and a mosquito larva or "wriggler" emerges. The length of time to hatch depends on water temperature, food and type of mosquito.The larva lives in the water, feeds and develops into the third stage of the life cycle called, a pupa or "tumbler." The pupa also lives in the water but no longer feeds.Finally, the mosquito emerges from the pupal case after two days to a week in the pupal stage. The life cycle typically takes up two weeks, but depending on conditions, it can range from 4 days to as long as a month.The adult mosquito emerges onto the water's surface and flies away, ready to begin its lifecycle.
Human Life
Human Life
We sow the glebe, we reap the corn,We build the house where we may rest,And then, at moments, suddenly,We look up to the great wide sky,Inquiring wherefore we were born…For earnest or for jest?The senses folding thick and darkAbout the stifled soul within,We guess diviner things beyond,And yearn to them with yearning fond;We strike out blindly to a markBelieved in, but not seen.We vibrate to the pant and thrillWherewith Eternity has curledIn serpent-twine about God’s seat;While, freshening upward to His feet,In gradual growth His full-leaved willExpands from world to world.And, in the tumult and excessOf act and passion under sun,We sometimes hear—oh, soft and far,As silver star did touch with star,The kiss of Peace and RighteousnessThrough all things that are done.God keeps His holy mysteriesJust on the outside of man’s dream;In diapason slow, we thinkTo hear their pinions rise and sink,While they float pure beneath His eyes,Like swans adown a stream.Abstractions, are they, from the formsOf His great beauty?—exaltationsFrom His great glory?—strong previsionsOf what we shall be?—intuitionsOf what we are—in calms and storms,Beyond our peace and passions?Things nameless! which, in passing so,Do stroke us with a subtle grace.We say, ‘Who passes?’—they are dumb.We cannot see them go or come:Their touches fall soft, cold, as snowUpon a blind man’s face.Yet, touching so, they draw aboveOur common thoughts to Heaven’s unknown,Our daily joy and pain advanceTo a divine significance,Our human love—O mortal love,That light is not its own!And sometimes horror chills our bloodTo be so near such mystic Things,And we wrap round us for defenceOur purple manners, moods of sense—As angels from the face of GodStand hidden in their wings.And sometimes through life’s heavy swoundWe grope for them!—with strangled breathWe stretch our hands abroad and tryTo reach them in our agony,—And widen, so, the broad life-woundWhich soon is large enough for death.
EASTERN MONGOLIAN BIRD'S SPECIALTIES
"Mongolia is one of the important
breeding and stopover sites for palearctic species. Breeding birds occur
in many different habitats (from taiga forest through different steppes
to Gobi desert including wetlands).
Migratory birds pass through
Mongolia from Siberian Taiga to wintering grounds. It means that you
will have a unique opportunity to see not only breeding Palearctic
species but also migratory species during both breeding and migration
seasons.
Untouched landscape and nomadic lifestyle give chance to discover a new species for the birds list of the country.
The peaceful country and friendly field company attract many birdwatchers to Mongolia. Through birdwatching and photographing trips you can help to develop a bird database of the country and educate young birdwatchers for the country".
Mongolia possesses a great range of landscapes and habitats: Lush taiga in the north, a mosaic of steppe and coniferous forests in the north and centre, endless seas of grass in the east and dry desert-steppe and desert in the south.
In addition, there are several mountain ranges with sub-alpine and alpine habitats at higher altitudes, and many wetlands.
Mongolia is a transition zone, where the flora and fauna of Siberia meet the very different species of the deserts and steppes of Central Asia.
The country can be divided into six basic natural zones, differing in climate, landscape, soil, flora and fauna.
If you are you an independent birdwatcher, who does not care for large group tours, then Birdingpaltours is for you.
You will enjoy the advantage of all the attention you get in a small group, for the same price or perhaps even less, than you will pay if you travel with the large tour groups from other countries.
Hiring a Birdingpal guide will boost the local economy and help protect birds other wildlife and their habitat.
Migratory birds pass through
Mongolia from Siberian Taiga to wintering grounds. It means that you
will have a unique opportunity to see not only breeding Palearctic
species but also migratory species during both breeding and migration
seasons.
Untouched landscape and nomadic lifestyle give chance to discover a new species for the birds list of the country.
The peaceful country and friendly field company attract many birdwatchers to Mongolia. Through birdwatching and photographing trips you can help to develop a bird database of the country and educate young birdwatchers for the country".
Mongolia possesses a great range of landscapes and habitats: Lush taiga in the north, a mosaic of steppe and coniferous forests in the north and centre, endless seas of grass in the east and dry desert-steppe and desert in the south.
In addition, there are several mountain ranges with sub-alpine and alpine habitats at higher altitudes, and many wetlands.
Mongolia is a transition zone, where the flora and fauna of Siberia meet the very different species of the deserts and steppes of Central Asia.
The country can be divided into six basic natural zones, differing in climate, landscape, soil, flora and fauna.
If you are you an independent birdwatcher, who does not care for large group tours, then Birdingpaltours is for you.
You will enjoy the advantage of all the attention you get in a small group, for the same price or perhaps even less, than you will pay if you travel with the large tour groups from other countries.
Hiring a Birdingpal guide will boost the local economy and help protect birds other wildlife and their habitat.
TRIBAL CULTURE
TRIBE
A Tribe' is viewed, historically or developmentally, as a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states.
A tribe is a distinct people, dependent on their land for their
livelihood, who are largely self-sufficient, and not integrated into the
national society. It is perhaps the term most readily understood and
used by the general public. Stephen Corry, director of Survival International,
the world's only organisation dedicated to indigenous rights, has
defined tribal people as "those which have followed ways of life for
many generations that are largely self-sufficient, and are clearly
different from the mainstream and dominant society".[1] This definition, however, would not apply in countries in the Middle East such as Iraq, where the entire population is a member of one tribe or another and therefore tribalism itself is dominant and mainstream.
There are an estimated one hundred and fifty million tribal individuals worldwide,[2] constituting around forty percent of indigenous individuals. However, although nearly all tribal people are also indigenous, there are some who are not indigenous to the areas where they live now.
It is important to make the distinction between tribal and indigenous because tribal peoples have a special status acknowledged in international law as well as problems in addition to those faced by the wider category of indigenous peoples.
Many people used the term "tribal society" to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of social, especially familial, descent groups (see clan and kinship). A customary tribe in these terms is a face-to-face community, relatively bound by kinship relations, reciprocal exchange, and strong ties to place.[3]
"Tribe" is a contested term due to its roots in colonialism. The word has no shared referent, whether in political form, kinship relations or shared culture. Some argue that it conveys a negative connotation of a timeless unchanging past.[4][5][6] To avoid these implications, some have chosen to use the terms "ethnic group", or nation instead.[4][5][6]
In some places, such as North America and India, tribes are polities that have been granted legal recognition and limited autonomy by the state.
The English word tribe occurs in 12th-century Middle English literature as referring to one of the twelve tribes of Israel. The word is from Old French tribu, in turn from Latin tribus, referring to the original tripartite ethnic division of the Ancient Roman state: Ramnes (Ramnenses), Tities (Titienses), and Luceres, corresponding, according to Marcus Terentius Varro, to the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans, respectively. The Ramnes were named after Romulus, leader of the Latins, Tities after Titus Tatius, leader of the Sabines, and Luceres after Lucumo, leader of an Etruscan army that had assisted the Latins. According to Livy, the three tribes were in fact squadrons of knights, rather than ethnic divisions. The term's ultimate etymology is uncertain, perhaps from the Proto-Indo-European roots tri- ("three") and bhew ("to be"). Gregory Nagy, in Greek Mythology and Poetics, says, citing the linguist Émile Benveniste in his Origines de la formation des noms en indo-européen, that the Umbrian "trifu" (tribus) is apparently derived from a combination of *tri- and *bhu-, where the second element is cognate with the 'phu-' of Greek phule, and that this subdivided the Greek polis into three phulai.
In 242–240 BC, the Tribal Assembly (comitia tributa) in the Roman Republic was organized in 35 tribes (four "urban tribes" and 31 "rural tribes"). The Latin word as used in the Bible translates as Greek phyle "race, tribe, clan" and ultimately the Hebrew or "sceptre". In the historical sense, "tribe", "race" and "clan" can be used interchangeably.
Considerable debate takes place over how best to characterize tribes. This partly stems from perceived differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes; some reflects more general controversy over cultural evolution and colonialism. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, and is more natural than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Thus, it was believed[who?] that tribes organize links between families (including clans and lineages), and provide them with a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an "ethnic group" or of a "nation". Anthropological and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions.
Anthropologist Elman Service presented a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories:
Malawi
Fried, however, proposed that most contemporary tribes do not have
their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such
"secondary" tribes, he suggested, actually came about as modern products
of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social
formations with weak leadership,
that do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes and support no standing
army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways.
First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and
economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control
costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their
frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because
such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have
a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the
so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India
provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary"
tribes as a means to defend themselves against state expansion. Members
of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities,
because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support
a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a
leadership that could co-ordinate economic production and military
activities.
Archaeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to coordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus.
There are an estimated one hundred and fifty million tribal individuals worldwide,[2] constituting around forty percent of indigenous individuals. However, although nearly all tribal people are also indigenous, there are some who are not indigenous to the areas where they live now.
It is important to make the distinction between tribal and indigenous because tribal peoples have a special status acknowledged in international law as well as problems in addition to those faced by the wider category of indigenous peoples.
Many people used the term "tribal society" to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of social, especially familial, descent groups (see clan and kinship). A customary tribe in these terms is a face-to-face community, relatively bound by kinship relations, reciprocal exchange, and strong ties to place.[3]
"Tribe" is a contested term due to its roots in colonialism. The word has no shared referent, whether in political form, kinship relations or shared culture. Some argue that it conveys a negative connotation of a timeless unchanging past.[4][5][6] To avoid these implications, some have chosen to use the terms "ethnic group", or nation instead.[4][5][6]
In some places, such as North America and India, tribes are polities that have been granted legal recognition and limited autonomy by the state.
The English word tribe occurs in 12th-century Middle English literature as referring to one of the twelve tribes of Israel. The word is from Old French tribu, in turn from Latin tribus, referring to the original tripartite ethnic division of the Ancient Roman state: Ramnes (Ramnenses), Tities (Titienses), and Luceres, corresponding, according to Marcus Terentius Varro, to the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans, respectively. The Ramnes were named after Romulus, leader of the Latins, Tities after Titus Tatius, leader of the Sabines, and Luceres after Lucumo, leader of an Etruscan army that had assisted the Latins. According to Livy, the three tribes were in fact squadrons of knights, rather than ethnic divisions. The term's ultimate etymology is uncertain, perhaps from the Proto-Indo-European roots tri- ("three") and bhew ("to be"). Gregory Nagy, in Greek Mythology and Poetics, says, citing the linguist Émile Benveniste in his Origines de la formation des noms en indo-européen, that the Umbrian "trifu" (tribus) is apparently derived from a combination of *tri- and *bhu-, where the second element is cognate with the 'phu-' of Greek phule, and that this subdivided the Greek polis into three phulai.
In 242–240 BC, the Tribal Assembly (comitia tributa) in the Roman Republic was organized in 35 tribes (four "urban tribes" and 31 "rural tribes"). The Latin word as used in the Bible translates as Greek phyle "race, tribe, clan" and ultimately the Hebrew or "sceptre". In the historical sense, "tribe", "race" and "clan" can be used interchangeably.
Considerable debate takes place over how best to characterize tribes. This partly stems from perceived differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes; some reflects more general controversy over cultural evolution and colonialism. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, and is more natural than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Thus, it was believed[who?] that tribes organize links between families (including clans and lineages), and provide them with a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an "ethnic group" or of a "nation". Anthropological and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions.
Anthropologist Elman Service presented a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories:
- Hunter-gatherer bands, which are generally egalitarian.
- Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige.
- Stratified tribal societies led by chieftains (see Chiefdom).
- Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.
Malawi
Archaeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to coordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin D. Roosevelt
On August 14, 1935, Franklin D. Roosevelt signed The Social Security Act into law. To remember FDR, who profoundly changed America with his New Deal programs, we’re taking a look at some fascinating facts about his life and legacy.
From the Great Depression to World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt
guided the United States through challenging times. He sought to help
the American people in many different ways, including creating social
safety nets for the elderly and the unemployed. In 1935, FDR signed the
Social Security Act to provide aid to the country's most senior citizens
and others in need.
FDR considered the Social
Security Act to be one of his greatest accomplishments. In a 1934
speech to Congress, he said that "I place the security of the men,
women and children of the Nation first." FDR believed that the American
people deserved "some safeguard against misfortunes which cannot be
wholly eliminated in this man-made world of ours." He accomplished this
goal with the creation of Social Security. Let's learn more about the
man behind these impressive achievements.
1. FDR had a half-brother. He
was the only child of Sara Delano and James Roosevelt, but he was not,
however, his father's only child. James did have a much older son, also
named James, from his first marriage to Rebecca Brien Howland. FDR's
brother, nicknamed "Rosy," was born in 1854—the same year as FDR's
mother.
By the time FDR was born in 1882, Rosy
was already grown up and had a family. He had married into another of
America's leading families when Rosy wed Helen Astor in 1877. FDR and
Rosy's daughter Helen and son James were even close in age. He played
with them when Rosy's family visited Springwood, the family's estate in
Hyde Park, New York.
2. Collecting stamps was a nearly lifelong passion for FDR. He
started up with this hobby around the age of 8. FDR's mother encouraged
this activity, having been a collector herself as a child. When FDR
contracted polio in 1921, he turned to his stamps as a distraction
during his bedridden days. In fact, he once said that "I owe my life to
my hobbies—especially stamp collecting."
In the
White House, FDR found working on his collection a form of stress
relief from the demands of his presidency. He even had the State
Department send over envelopes it received so that he review the stamps.
FDR took an active role in the creation of new stamps as well. He
approved more than 200 new stamps during his time in office.
3. FDR dropped out of law school. His
undergrad studies seemed to be a piece of cake for him. He only took
him three years to earn a bachelor's degree in history from Harvard. FDR
then enrolled at Columbia University's school. But he abandoned his
legal studies in 1907 after he passed his bar exam. FDR only practiced
for a few years before jumping into politics. In 1910, he won his first
election to the New York State Senate.
4. For FDR, love was a family affair. He married Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, his fifth cousin once removed, on March 17, 1905. Eleanor was the niece of another of FDR's distant relatives, President Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt. President Roosevelt actually walked Eleanor down the aisle at her wedding to FDR, filling in for Eleanor's late father.
5. FDR's first attempt at winning a national office was a flop. FDR
won the Democratic nomination for vice president in 1920 with James M.
Cox, governor of Ohio, as the party's presidential pick. The pair lost
out to Republican Warren Harding and his running mate Calvin Coolidge.
Their victory was a decisive one, with Harding taking roughly 60
percent of the popular vote and roughly 76 percent of the electoral
votes.
When running for president himself, FDR
would score several substantial wins of his own. The 1936 election was
perhaps his greatest victory, picking up roughly 98 percent of the
electoral votes. His opponent, Republican Alfred M. Landon, only won two
states, Maine and Vermont.
6. FDR made history when he appointed Frances Perkins to his cabinet in 1933.
Selected as secretary of labor, Perkins became the first woman to hold a
cabinet post in a U.S. presidential administration. She was
instrumental in helping Roosevelt with many of his programs, including
Social Security. This was the second time FDR had tapped Perkins for a
government post. As governor of New York, he picked her to be the
state's labor commissioner.
7. FDR holds the record for the longest-serving American president.
In 1944, FDR was elected to his fourth term. And no one can ever
challenge this feat. In 1951, the 22nd Amendment was passed, which
limited future presidents to only two terms. The amendment states that
“No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than
twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as
President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person
was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President
more than once.”
